Stefanutti & Bressan projects

Tugela River Bridge (1992)
When the Tugela River Bridge was originally put out to tender, it was designed as a four-lane divided carriageway with two separate 11.4m wide bridge decks. Stefanutti & Bressan submitted a tender with a bold alternative single structure design with an overall width of 19.8m to match the four-lane freeway on each side of the river.

The contract was awarded to Stefanutti & Bressan for their alternative design. This single carriageway structure offered an 11% saving over the originally designed dual carriageway bridge with its 15% larger plan deck area. The bridge deck was constructed, using the incremental launching technique (using Dywidag bars) and at 460m long and 14 6000 ton sitting on piles 50m deep, is still today the widest and heaviest bridge deck launched in the Southern Hemisphere.

The success of the project was further acknowledged with the Fulton Award for excellence in the use of concrete in

Intershore (1995)
One of Stefanutti & Bressan’s first marine civils contracts was for Intershore in Durban Harbour’s Bayhead area. The project included the construction of the yard for the Intershore oil rig construction programme. This included major earthworks and layer-works, site drainage, water and power reticulation and the large concrete foundations on which the oil rig structures would be built.

In addition, the load-out quay wall and the associated bank protection and mooring work were constructed to enable the oil rigs to be loaded onto the transport barges en route to the Angolan oil fields.

Durban International Road System  (1997)
The ‘gateway’ feeder ramp over the Southern Freeway leading into the Durban airport was restricted, necessitating the construction of a bridge. This structure was launched on a global curve, i.e. combined horizontal and vertical curves and further complicated by the fact that it required pulling initially and, when nearing completion, it required restraining.

Majuba Power Station (1996)
The first major project of the Gauteng offices was to construct the Majuba cooling towers near Standerton for Eskom. Not only was this project worth more than the company’s annual turnover at the time, the company had also never built a cooling tower before. However, the company was undaunted by the challenge, confident in its technical skills and the competence of its teams and excited to tackle a project it knew would establish Stefanutti & Bressan in the province.

A massive ring beam of reinforced concrete of some 3 400m², measuring 300m in circumference, provided the springing level for the tower. The shell structure consists of an 88-side polygon, with the precast columns and lintels being able to incorporate the changing geometry as the vertical height increased.

The construction of the tower shells required concrete that had a very high workability and rapid strength gains in the first 20 hours. The inclined formwork and the width of the shell wall demanded concrete that would flow from the skip into the form without bridging on the reinforcement and with the minimum of moving with vibrators. The strength at 20 hours of 8Mpa allowed the formwork to be removed early the following morning, allowing the cycle to start again.

A project that would normally take four years was completed one year ahead of schedule. The success of the project was further acknowledged by the Fulton Award for excellence in the use of concrete.

Sasol Solvents Butanol & Acrylates Complex (2001)
The civil portion of this project comprised the construction of an N’ Butanol plant and an acrylic acid and acrylates (AAA) plant, along with a control building complex from where the whole process is controlled. The plants consist of a process plant where the chemicals are produced and tank farms where the chemicals are stored.

The project also provided for a complete infrastructure, including the construction of numerous substations, roads, a firewater ring main, underground services and ancillary structures. The civil works involved the use of almost 30 000m³ of concrete in a multitude of infrastructural elements such as a 120m long, 9m high process structure and a 134m long, 40m wide tank farm raft foundation. These structures were adorned with mechanical and electrical equipment, thus virtually hidden from sight in the final state. The tank farms are large reinforced concrete raft foundations with bund walls designed specifically around environmental considerations for the containment of any spillage of chemicals into the surrounds.

Woodchip Plant Richards Bay (2001)
This project for the Central Timber Co-operative in Richards Bay was for the construction of the woodchip plant, including the link conveyor and gantry. The conveyor gallery, in excess of 200m, was incrementally launched from an elevated casting bed across marshalling yards with no disruption of traffic.

Nchwaning No.3 Shaft (2000)
The extremely poor ground conditions, coupled with the large 9m span tunnel at Nchwaning No. 3 Shaft, required an innovative solution for safely completing the mining and lining of the material/access decline at Assmang’s Black Rock Mine in the Northern Cape.

The project managers had identified the poor geological conditions (calcretised sands, gravels and clay) in their feasibility study and proposed the conventional in-situ reinforced concrete lining solution, to be undertaken by a specialist civil engineering contractor. In response to a quotation request, Stefanutti & Bressan Civils proposed a unique precast concrete tunnel lining system that they felt would be safe, reliable, cost-effective and an alternative to the conventional in-situ lining option.

With a precast lining system the permanent support is immediately available at the face and the tunnel advance (mining and lining) is driven primarily at the speed at which the excavations can be safely done. During the process of driving the decline tunnel through the clay formation, various collapses of the hanging wall occurred, attesting to the resilience and safety of the system to mishap and abuse. It was established that the installation could successfully be done by the mining contractor, allowing them to stage the programme to suit production needs. After successfully installing 436m of precast lining Stefanutti & Bressan handed the patented system, placing devices and systems equipment over to the mining contractor for an equitable consideration.

Simuma Extension (2006)
This project for Natal Portland Cement at Simuma near Port Shepstone, involved the design and construction of the new cement milling circuit at the plant. The scope of works included all the conveyors, substations, the new mill building, packaging plant and the fire cell cement blending silo. The above were constructed with concrete batched on site, using materials supplied by Natal Portland Cement.

The project also achieved 100 000 man hours worked without a lost-time injury.

PFG Glass Factory (2005)
In 2003 Stefanutti & Bressan established a piling division, mainly operating in the Durban and coastal areas. Two years later an independent piling company in Gauteng was established and one of the company’s first contracts was for the PFG glass factory in Springs.

The contract comprised the excavation by Stefanutti & Bressan Earthworks and accompanying lateral support work for a nine-metre deep excavation. In total, 160 lateral support piles, 260 ground anchors (450 and 600kN), 100 nine-metre soil nails and 1 650m² of shotcreting were required for the support of the excavation sides. It also required the installation of 600 load-bearing piles for the structure encapsulating the new furnace and associated works. Piling consisted of CFA pressure grouted, cast-in-situ uncased and cast-in-situ temporarily cased piles, ranging from 500mm to 900mm in diameter and going to depths of 23m.

As newcomers to the market both client and engineer kept a close eye on the progress. However, Stefanutti & Bressan met all milestone dates and was soon awarded more work on site. The successful project was the first of many in the province and the company is currently looking to expand operations into other Southern African countries.

Roodeplaat Dam (2005)
Undertaken as a joint venture, this contract for Roodeplaat Temba Water Services Trust was to construct a 60Ml water purification plant to supply purified water from Roodeplaat Dam to the northern suburbs of Pretoria. The scope of work included:

Construction of:

• dam abstraction works;
• raw water pump station, inclusive of pumps and associated pipe-work;
• flocculation units, sedimentation tanks, filters and purified water reservoirs and sludge dams, including associated mechanical pipe work and electrical work;
• a high lift pump station together with pumps and pipe work; and
• chemical closing buildings and the installation of chemical closing equipment.

Installation of:

• 23km of steel pipe lines, 700mm in diameter and greater; and
• bulk electrical supply to the works.

Just prior to the completion of the contract, the client identified the need to draw more water from the dam, whilst ensuring that the dam supply level did not drop. In conjunction with Prof. Nick Dekker of the University of Pretoria, an innovative engineering solution was found. A dry concrete chamber was built and installed upstream, under water and pumped dry. Diamond coring and diamond wire rope were then used to cut a small tunnel through the wall to install and grout-in a steel pipe in four locations.

SAFA House (2006)
The first major building contract related to the 2010 Soccer World Cup was awarded to Stefanutti & Bressan in 2006. The South African Football Association’s (SAFA) office building was built near the NASREC Show Grounds at the FNB Soccer Stadium site in Johannesburg. The building has a unique triple-volume entrance atrium and “soccer ball” roof and houses the Fédération International de Football Association (FIFA) delegation, who will remain in this office until the finals of the Soccer World Cup have been concluded in South Africa in 2010.

Polana Casino (2006)
Stefanutti & Bressan’s Mozambique-based operation built the new beach front casino at Maputo’s renowned Polana Hotel. Located just 30m from the sea, the structure is built on 140 piles driven into the sea sand. The casino’s striking architecture and design included specialised mouldings on the wall, with all materials for the finishing imported from Indonesia, Brazil, the United Kingdom and South Africa.

Bospoort Dam (2007)
The earthworks contract for the rehabilitation and upgrading of the Bospoort Dam in the North West Province involved:
• removal of 16 000m³ dimension rock;
• blast and removal of 60 000m³ rock;
• pre-splitting rock face up to 18m in height;
• blasting the rock to a 400mm grade to be used for the rock fill;
• raising of three existing dam walls by 1.6m with blasted rock; and
• constructing toe drains at the foot of the earth dams.

Elements of this project that provided the team with challenges included:
• removing the dimension rock (the size of a small utility vehicle) without blasting;
• blasting the rock to tight tolerances;
• achieving the required grading of the blasted rock;
• placing the screening sand on the existing dam walls;
• creating cougher dams to excavate below water level; and
• relocating the existing indigenous flora and fauna for later use.

The project maintained a 100% safety record.

SA Bulk Terminals (2007)
SA Bulk Terminals in Durban Harbour required storage capacity from an additional six grain silos. These were to be positioned parallel and south of the existing line of six silos and north of the newly constructed tippler station. These silos are founded on 170 piles, which are capped with a continuous 0.9m ground beam. The hexagonal shaped walls, cast in one complete 9.9m high lift, together with internal columns and interlocking beams, support the 1m thick transfer slab. The ‘storage cells’ of the silos were slip-formed from the transfer slab to a height of 46.45m above the ground, and completed with a cast in-situ hopper. Finally the roof, consisting of precast beams and planks, topped with a reinforced concrete slab, was put in place. Weighbridges, rail sidings and storm water works completed this multidisciplinary project.

Stocks Projects:

Volkskas (1952/1975)
In 1952 one of the most modern buildings in Pretoria at the time was commissioned for Volkskas Bank – an eight storey high building with a fantastic view over the city, the Union Buildings in the east and the fresh produce market across the road. This market would later make way for the new modern Volkskas Headquarters on Strijdom Square – a building Stocks was to build 24 years later.

In February 1976, Stocks commenced work on the intricate 136m high, 36-floor building. The new Volkskas building was not only the tallest in Pretoria at the time of its completion in 1978; it was architecturally also set to be one of SA’s most spectacular structures in the seventies. The project comprised four parking levels, a basement and ground floor, 36 floors including two large service lifts, 12 escalators and 23 lifts - one of which rode up and down on the exterior of the building. Each floor was about 1 500m², requiring 2 300m² of vertical formwork and 750m³ of concrete (in total 132 000 ton of concrete was used for the structure).

Poyntons (1967)
In the late 1960s, Poyntons was a foretaste of what Pretoria was going to look like in the future. At the time it was built it was the tallest building in South Africa with its top floor being 375ft above ground. It was built as a fully self-contained complex with two office buildings, a pedestrian mall and adjoining retail, restaurants, banks and a six-storey parking garage, all served by 22 lifts.

Completed in 1970, the main building consisted of two wings overlapping a central core. The taller of the two, at 37 floors high, was mainly used for office space and the second 31-storey building was occupied by government.

Rand Afrikaans University (1971-1975)
The RAU project launched Stocks into the lucrative Johannesburg market in the 1970s. The sheer size of the project resulted in some of the work
being subcontracted. However, Stocks built most of the central educational buildings, lecture halls, administration offices, library and the university club, including student facilities such as the cafeteria, dining hall, indoor sports facilities including five squash courts, and an auditorium seating 1 000 people.
During its busiest time almost 1 000 people were employed and the site had a total of 12 tower cranes at work. The volume of equipment and machinery on site led to the establishment of a temporary plant yard on site for efficient access to maintenance and repairs.

Sun City & The Lost City (1978/1972)
In 1978 Sol Kerzner came up with the concept of building a fantasy magic entertainment centre in a remote and wild area of Southern Africa, Las Vegas style… Stocks & Stocks, who had already built a number of hotels for the hotel tycoon, helped to realise this dream by building the world- famous Sun City Hotel and entertainment complex. A project of this scale would, under normal circumstances, have taken three years to complete. However, the project was completed in a record time of 17 months. A firm pace was set, work was done around the clock… and Sun City was opened in time for Christmas 1979. In April 1984 Sun International threw the Stocks team another challenge in the form of the Cascades Hotel project – a 223 room, 14-level pyramid-shaped hotel with all public facilities. The hotel was handed over seven months ahead of schedule – in time for the team to sit
back, crack open a beer and watch the famous 1984 Page/Coetzee Christmas fight.
 
In 1992 Stocks found themselves back at Sun City, tasked with building the Lost City – the latest addition to the resort. The Lost City’s centre piece, The Palace, stands seven storeys high in places, with a lift tower and viewing platform rising to 14 floors, 340 bedrooms, a four-volume entrance foyer and, in the grounds, an olympic-size pool. The seasoned resort-building team in Bophuthatswana was again up to the challenge and, with nine tower cranes on site, at times up to 3 500 people and various divisions, including Stocks Civils and Housing on site, one of the most prestigious construction contracts of the 90s was built within a 19-month period.

Mpumalanga Government Offices (2001)
A joint venture with Stocks Building Africa as lead partner was formed for the construction of this office complex on the banks of a pristine river in Mpumalanga. The area has an abundance of indigenous flora and fauna and priority was given to the preservation of this natural habitat. The contract, therefore, included an environmental management plan that was structured to protect and preserve the environment and minimise any long-term impact of the construction activities.

In total, 7.5 million bricks were laid end-to-end with the gross building area being 95 000m². The complex is vast and impressive with a ceiling area that would cover 11 soccer fields and roof sheeting enough for eight! The 11-storey dome weighs 140 tons, the air-conditioning ducting measures 16 kilometers and weighs 340 tons. A grand total of 200 000 litres of paint was used for the entire project. This landmark project employed 1 800 people during peak times and 2 700 jobs were created directly and indirectly.

Ushaka Marine World (2002)
The uShaka Marine World project comprised of four components:

• An oceanarium, designed to conform to international benchmark aquarium standards and facilities, it includes the aquarium comprising seven large tanks and 25 small exhibits; a snorkel lagoon; a 2 200-seat stadium and dolphinarium; a 90-seat stadium and seal tank and a penguin rookery. An 80m-long rusting 1930s merchant marine ship, ‘wrecked’ on the reef, provides access to the aquarium, as well as to up-market restaurant and bars. The 320 tons of structural steel, with a supporting structure weighing 150 tons, constitutes the aquarium retail area. The steel is clad with fibre-cement sheeting and themed to create a weathered and distressed appearance.
• The Wet ‘n Wild water adventure park with a number of adrenalin rides and a 480m-long lazy ride through the park.
• The Village Walk – a retail outlet and restaurant section.
• The Oceanographic Research Institute offices, including educational facilities, veterinary facilities and a plant room. The scope of work included large-scale dewatering, because the founding levels were up to 1.5m below the water table, and extensive piling (involving some 600 piles) was called for in the sandy beach terrain.

The volume of earth moved amounted to 250 000m² of which 170 000m² was stockpiled for later use. The total volume of concrete required for the marine park was 43 000m² with 98 000m² of formwork, 3 300 tons of reinforcing, and 4.2 million bricks were used. The concrete for the project comprised 40MPa for the structural work, up to 50MPa for some of the columns and 30MPa for the retail section. The plant on site, during the busiest construction period, included six tower cranes, one self-erector, five mobile cranes, two concrete pumps and several dumpers and trucks.

Sandton Square & Michelangelo (1996/2003)
The Square’s North, West and South wings provide 15 500m² of retailing and 19 000m² of prime office space.

• The North Wing of the development contains a lower retail mall abutting the square itself and the service core rises a further seven storeys. It consists of a 240-room luxury hotel with conference rooms and extensive public areas.
• The impressive West Wing contains two ritzy levels of high fashion and specialty retailing, topped by three floors of office space.
• The South Wing houses two levels of retailing space plus three storeys of offices. At the center is a square of 6 000m². This is the largest public open space inside any commercial development in South Africa. A random pattern was followed in the paving, adding to the aged and welcoming look of a Mediterranean piazza. Marble inserts bring additional visual interest to the paving, but the most unusual feature is the fountain created on the floor of the square. The feature does not stand square, but is integrated into it. The nozzles are retracted to create a single, trafficable block. One hundred adjustable nozzles are used to build a two-metre high mist, while a ring of eight spouts sends up columns of water, providing a spectacular display. Within the shopping malls, elaborate, clover-shaped barrel vaulted roofs provide additional points of interest.

MICHELANGELO TOWERS:
Topping out at 146m above street level, the Michelangelo Towers overwhelmingly dominates the Johannesburg northern suburbs urban environment. Yet, its graceful architecture, detailed external forms and perfectly calibrated sandstone and glittering glass façades are surprisingly delicate for a structure of this size. The exterior combines an intricate, classically inspired design with suave, sharp-edged, 21st Century precision. Its sandstone finished façade suggests timeless elegance. The extensive use of aluminium and glass sliding doors and windows, stainless steel handrails and glazed balustrades are a powerful reminder of the development’s uncompromising focus on modernism. Eight secure parking floors (four located below street level), two retail levels and three levels of “gallery” apartments form the Michelangelo Towers podium. The 4 500m² contemporary shopping mall can be accessed from Nelson Mandela Square (previously known as Sandton Square) on two levels. There are 13 levels of Michelangelo apartments, four levels of penthouse suites, two levels of king penthouse suites and the three-level observation suite, capped by the stainless steel arches and floating “jewel” of the spectacular Renaissance-inspired cupola dome that provides the building’s unique illuminated signature form. The project took 33 months to build and was constructed as joint venture.

Maropeng (2005)
The Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site is a vast area spanning 47 000ha in the north-western part of Gauteng. Stocks Building Africa (in a joint venture) was responsible for the design and construction of the Interpretation Centre Complex (later named Maropeng) and the Sterkfontein Caves visitors facility. The project is based on government’s public private partnership approach and was the first of its kind in South Africa. Partners include the Maropeng a’Afrika Consortium (private sector), the University of the Witwatersrand (owner of the Sterkfontein Caves and the main excavator in the Cradle of Humankind) and the Gauteng Provincial Government, with Standard Bank donating 100ha of land for Maropeng. Maropeng a’Afrika was granted a ten-year concession, with a performance-based option to be renewed at the end of this term. 

Sterkfontein Caves underwent a major revamp and a brand new facility was built, including a restaurant, conference centre, retail shop and a scientific exhibit. Maropeng, located eight kilometers away from the Sterkfontein Caves, is an entirely new development and consists of a main building, called the Tumulus (including offices, a large conference venue, restaurants, a visitors attraction with a kiddies cave, a bar and viewing deck), a marketplace,
including a restaurant and destination retail store, a 5 000-seater outdoor amphitheatre, a 120-bed learners’ quarters and a four-star, 24-bed boutique hotel.

Maun Hospital (2003)
The Maun Hospital, built in a remote town in Botswana, included a number of firsts for the area – the first district hospital, the first time slabs were precast on site in that particular town, the first lift in a building in Maun and the first time that a revolutionary new heating and cooling process would be implemented in Africa! About 78 000m² of fill was imported for the platform on which the main hospital buildings and service buildings were built. The building area spanned 26 000m² on two levels and the complete hospital boasts 271 beds, an outpatient clinic and medical, surgical, gynaecology,
pediatrics, psychiatric, maternity and tuberculosis units. The complex building included a unique air-conditioning system that cools the structural mass of the building rather than just the air within it. This allows temperatures within the structure to be contained for up to a week before
reaching uncomfortable levels with the system being switched off.

In addition most of the services installed in the hospital have back-up installations. As there are no service providers in the near vicinity, in the event of a breakdown, the hospital has, by design, the ability to sustain itself for a much longer period of time until the arrival of support crews.

ACSA Airports (since 1996)
The list of projects the company has been involved in at OR
Tambo International includes:
1. East-wing offices at the international terminal on the lower roof (1996)
2. International terminal upgrade (1999)
3. International terminal retail development (1999)
4. Multi-storey parkade and bus station (1999)
5. International terminal basement upgrade (2001)
6. Domestic terminal bussing gates (1999)
7. New international terminal viewing deck (2002)
8. International terminal fire escapes upgrade (2002)
9. Domestic terminal pier (2003)
10. Extensions to the multi-storey parkade (2003)
11. Transfer corridor from the domestic terminal to the international terminal (2003)
12. Swissport warehouse and offices (2004)
13. AHS warehouse on airside (2005)
14. KB1 and KB2 plant rooms and basement upgrade (2006)
15. New central terminal basement enabling works (2006)
16. ABSA International Trade Bureau (2006)
17. International pier development phases 1,2 & 3 (Stefanutti & Bressan in a joint venture, 2007 – 2008)
18. Multi-storey parkade 2 (2007 – 2009)

Al Tayer Stocks LLC
Deira City Centre: The Deira City Centre project included renovating and upgrading one of the first shopping malls built in Dubai. Part of the ground floor car park was converted into an extension of the mall; the 15 000m² car park was upgraded; new mall entrances were added; and all mall floors were retiled.

Harvey Nichols: The scope of works at Harvey Nichols included the complete fit-out of this high-street designer store, covering 10 000m² over three levels in the Mall of the Emirates. An exotic Moroccan style restaurant was also constructed as part of the Harvey Nichols store offering.

The Magic Planet: The Magic Planet entertainment centre is underneath the Mall of the Emirate’s indoor ski slope. The 6 000m² complex rises to a height of 17m and is filled with fairground rides and children’s play areas.

Zener Steward LLC
Zener Steward Electromechanical specialises in the design and installation of electrical, mechanical and plumbing systems within the residential, financial, commercial, industrial and the leisure & retail sectors in Dubai and Abu Dhabi. The business works mainly as a sub-contractor to Al Tayer
Stocks and directly with select contractors.

ECMP Projects:

Finch Mine Tailings Disposal (2007/2008)
ECMP constructed the new Britz tailings disposal facility at the Finsch Mine in the North Western Cape. The project included the earthworks for the starter embankments, the side cladding to the waste rock dump and the return water dam. The project also included all the tailings pipe distribution systems and pump stations. Upon completion of the construction phase, the project was handed over to the ECMP operations division for the ongoing management of the facility

BKM Tailings Dam Thickener (2007/2008)
ECMP designed and constructed the BKM paste disposal facility. The workscope included the earthworks for the tailings dam, return water dam and thickener terrace, as well as all the civil, mechanical and electrical works for the construction of paste thickener. Upon completion the
project was handed over to the ECMP operations division for the ongoing management of the paste thickener and disposal facility.

Civil & Coastal Projects

Control Buoy Gravity Base (2000)
In May 1999, Civil & Coastal Construction was awarded the design and construction of a control buoy gravity base structure by Dresser Kellog South Africa. The structure was to be deployed in the Mossgas EM Field development, some 85km south-east of Mossel Bay, anchoring a taut-moored controlbuoy. The gravity base would eventually rest on the sea-bed, some 100m underwater. The structural design was subcontracted to Entech Consultants from Stellenbosch and the foundation design to Advanced Geomechanics from Perth, Australia. The gravity base was constructed in the Selbourne Dry Dock facility in Simon’s Town. The footprint of the base is 15.47m², with a 25 cell 11.5m-high wall structure, capped by a 600mm-thick roof. The walls were slip-formed. An extremely high reinforcing density of 210 kg/m³ was necessary in order to satisfy Marine Warranty and Lloyds
Register requirements. Reinforcing detailing and fixing proved highly complex. However, all deadlines set by the client were met.

 Although the gravity base was towed to site and installed by an offshore contractor, model testing of the tow and lowering to below 100m was undertaken by the CSIR and Entech as part of the Civil & Coastal contract.

Saldanha Fender Support (2004)
This contract involved the alternative design and construction of a “launched” cantilever fender support from an existing caisson on the Saldanha oil jetty berth, saving Portnet nearly 50% on the postulated scheme by minimising floating plant, and employing launch-type construction and pre-cast systems.

Skelton & Plummer Projects

Namakwa Sands (1994)
The scope of works included the electrical design, supply of electrical equipment and cabling, supply of all steelwork and pipe-work; and erection and commissioning of a mineral sands pilot plant. The mineral sands pilot plant was erected and water commissioned in the Skelton & Plummer yard before being stripped and transported to the Namakwa Sands site and re-erected over a total project duration of seven weeks.

Orapa Diamond Mine (1994)
In 1994 the Orapa Diamond Mine in Botswana invested in the construction of the Orapa Tasster in a bid to further conserve scarce water resources. At this time, the Tasster, built by Skelton & Plummer under licence for a French company, was the biggest Tasster built in the world. The Tasster presented marked water saving in comparison with thickeners; the Tasster sludge product was mixed with other plant tailings and discarded to the tailings dump thus eliminating the need for slimes dams and, in the long-term, the Tasster proved more economical than thickeners.